New Institutions and Old Systems: The Imperial Politics during the Reign of Mahmud II

Wang SanyiWorld History 2017（04）

Abstract：Mahmud II reformed the administration affiliated to the Ottoman Court by modelling the government departments of Western Europe．These departments，including the Ministry of the Interior，Ministry of Foreign Affairs，Ministry of Finance，Ministry of Agriculture，Ministry of Foreign Trade，Public Works Commission, etc．，replaced the former bureaus. His reform also included the establishment of the Military Commission, the Supreme Council of Judicatures as well as the increase of the salary for civil servants. Although this reform was relatively comprehensive, the fundamental system of the empire was untouched．“Sultan-Khalifa”— the theocracy system of the state — was maintained; the“Millet”system — the management of minorities and non-Muslims — stayed intact; and the privileges of the hierarchical system were preserved. Furthermore, Mahmud II strengthened the control of local affairs and paid more attention to the loyalty of provinces and territories. His“new” army was not only an army with modern equipment，but also held absolute loyalty to the Sultan．However，Mahmud Ⅱ’ s political reform failed to solve the crisis. This failure was not due to the resistance of the religious rank and old forces，but was attributed to the superficiality resulted from the establishment of the new institutions，which were merely aimed at maintaining the old regime．Nevertheless, the economic aspect of his reform was remarkable, as the “Timar” system, tax farming, and traditional land system were abolished. This indicates that social progress is unattainable unless the institutional changes are realized．

《世界历史》2017年第4期

摘要：马哈茂德二世把隶属于奥斯曼帝国宫廷的行政机构改成类似于西欧的政府部门。内政部、外交部、财政部、农业部、外贸部、公共工程委员会等取代了原先的各衙门,还成立了军事委员会、最高司法委员会等机构。在改组政府机构的同时,还改善文官的待遇,提高薪俸。但是,帝国的根本制度并未触动,"素丹制—哈里发制"不变,即政教合一的国体不变;管理少数民族和少数教派的"米勒特"制不变;特权和等级制度不变。马哈茂德二世加强对地方的控制,更注重行省和属地的忠诚;新军队的"新"不仅是装备现代化,关键是完全效命和服从于素丹。马哈茂德二世的政治变革未能挽救危局,并不是由于宗教阶层和旧势力的抵制,而是因为建立新机构仅仅形成表面上的新气象,实质是用新机构来维持旧制度。马哈茂德二世的经济改革效果明显,恰恰是因为废除了"蒂玛"制度,取消了包税制,改变了土地制度。